Nationwide and regional evidence on PM2.5-mortality in a tropical climate: Risks persist below standard and under climate extremes

BACKGROUND: up to 414 µg/m³ , nationwide, and region-specific evidence on short-term associations with cardiorespiratory mortality remains limited under tropical climate extremes, diverse climate regions, or below standard levels. Prior studies emphasized temperate settings. This nationwide tropical study assessed region-specific risks and effect modifiers. METHOD: . RESULTS: standard, cardiovascular 1.016 (95% CI: 1.001-1.030) and respiratory 1.031 (95% CI: 1.010-1.051); extreme cold 1.055 (95% CI: 1.030-1.082) and 1.055 (95% CI: 1.022-1.090); and extreme dry 1.014 (95% CI: 1.003-1.026) and 1.017 (95% CI: 1.002-1.033). Sensitivity, temperature, and COVID-19 analyses confirmed robustness. CONCLUSION: exposure and cardiovascular and respiratory mortality. offering evidence that may inform and guide region-specific abatement, strengthen standards, and inform protective health policies.