Highly Resolved Life Cycle Emissions of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in China from 1985 to 2023

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), particularly perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), are persistent contaminants of global concern, yet their long-term and spatially resolved emissions in China remain poorly understood. Here we developed a life cycle emission inventory of PFOS and PFOA with high spatiotemporal resolution for mainland China from 1985 to 2023 using dynamic material flow analysis (DMFA). By integrating provincial activity data, trade statistics, and sector-specific emission factors, we quantified emissions from production, industrial applications, in-use products, and end-of-life management to multiple media. Cumulative emissions reached 2,289.6 tons for PFOS and 846.1 tons for PFOA. Early-2010s PFOS emissions were approximately double previous estimates, and our inventory filled gaps in emission hotspots that had been overlooked in earlier studies. Historical emissions exhibited an increase-peak-decline pattern, peaking around 2010 and then decreasing due to the Stockholm Convention and domestic regulations. High emissions were concentrated in eastern coastal and industrialized regions, with hotspots extending toward central and western China. With tightening controls on PFOS and PFOA, future emissions will increasingly be driven by legacy products and waste streams. This inventory provides a solid foundation for exposure assessment, hotspot identification, and PFAS emission management in China.