Modern Pollen-Vegetation Relationships in North-Central Oman and Their Implications for Interpreting Fossil Pollen Records from Extremely Arid Environments

Modern pollen–vegetation studies are essential for calibrating fossil pollen records, particularly in hyper arid environments where sparse vegetation and long-distance transport complicate interpretation. This study investigates pollen–vegetation relationships in the mosaic landscapes of north-central Oman to refine palynological and palaeoecological reconstructions. Fifteen sites were sampled using pollen traps and surface samples across natural mountain, mountain foothill, and anthropogenically influenced systems, including oasis environments. Vegetation surveys were conducted within a 20 m radius, and multivariate statistical analyses (Bray-Curtis dissimilarity, hierarchical clustering, NMDS, PERMANOVA) were applied to assess vegetation structure and its relationship to pollen assemblages. Pollen-vegetation relationships were further evaluated using Mantel and Procrustes analyses and taxon-specific pollen-vegetation ratios. The vegetation composition is highly heterogeneous and only partially aligned with predefined environmental classifications, reflecting strong local variability. Pollen assemblages are dominated by anemophilous taxa, particularly Poaceae and Chenopodium, which are consistently overrepresented relative to their vegetation abundance. In contrast, many ecologically important entomophilous taxa, including Vachellia and Zygophyllum, are poorly represented or absent. Overall, the correspondence between vegetation and pollen assemblages is limited, indicating a substantial contribution from extra-local and regional pollen sources. Distinct anthropogenic signals are evident in oasis settings, where Phoenix dactylifera is well represented. Pollen assemblages in hyper arid environments represent spatially integrated signals rather than direct proxies of local vegetation. The observed representation biases and significant regional input underscore the necessity for cautious interpretation of fossil pollen records. This study presents a contemporary analogue framework that facilitates more robust palynological reconstructions in arid regions.