Volatile organic compounds in archival ancient Egyptian human remains: a degradation-informed evaluation

Abstract Fragrant substances played a central role in ancient Egyptian ritual and domestic life, yet archaeological discussions of smell have largely relied on textual and artefactual evidence. This study presents a qualitative exploratory investigation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) assemblages, including compounds associated with reported odour descriptors, detected in archival ancient Egyptian human remains. Solid-phase microextraction headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-HS-GC-MS) was applied to ten tissue, hair, and mummified material samples curated at the Bioarchaeology and Biomedical Egyptology Research Group, University of Manchester. Aldehydes and fatty acids dominated detected profiles, alongside variable plant- and resin-associated compounds. Volatile residues remained detectable despite autopsy intervention and long-term storage. Compounds are interpreted as residual traces as molecular attributions remain limited due to chemical convergence and degradation. The results demonstrate the value of VOC analysis for integrating chemical evidence into discussions of sensory heritage, without implying reconstruction of past smell.