Exposure to Cd, Cr, and Pb through Bottled Water Consumption: A Preliminary Health Risk Assessment

Cd, Cr, and Pb concentrations were analysed in 18 bottled drinking water samples from the Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) market, classified as natural spring water or still natural mineral water.Metal concentrations were determined using atomic absorption spectrometry with electrothermal atomisation in a graphite furnace.Cr was quantified in two samples, Pb in four samples, while Cd concentrations were below the limit of detection in all samples.All concentrations were below national regulatory limits.Health risks associated with Cr and Pb exposure through bottled water consumption were assessed for adolescents, adults, and pregnant women by calculating the hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), carcinogenic risk (CR), and total carcinogenic risk (TCR).Some exposure scenarios exceeded HQ and HI thresholds, suggesting potential non-carcinogenic effects, primarily due to Pb exposure.CR and TCR values across all exposure scenarios were below established thresholds, indicating generally acceptable or negligible carcinogenic risk.Given the limited sample set, the data on Cd, Cr, and Pb content, along with the health risk assessment, should be regarded as preliminary, serving as a starting point to guide future research.Considering the health implications of heavy metal exposure, continuous water-quality monitoring and a more comprehensive health risk assessment, including additional heavy metals and a larger sample set, are essential, as regulatory compliance does not necessarily imply the absence of health risks.