Informal digital learning of Malay among L3 learners in China: the role of learner motivation and self-efficacy

Learners of less commonly taught languages such as Malay increasingly rely on digital resources to develop their language proficiency beyond the classroom, making informal digital learning an important yet still insufficiently understood part of their learning experiences. As one of the first studies examining informal digital learning of Malay (IDLM), this article draws upon the proactive language learning theory to explore how motivation and self-efficacy shape IDLM among Chinese university students learning Malay as a third language (L3). We collected questionnaire data from 202 students and conducted follow-up interviews with 28 of them. Structural equation modelling revealed that promotion-focused motivation directly predicted IDLM, while prevention-focused motivation related to IDLM indirectly through self-efficacy. Self-efficacy emerged as the strongest direct predictor of IDLM. The three factors jointly explained 59% of the variance in IDLM. Qualitative findings showed that promotion-focused motivation fostered IDLM through personal interest, cultural curiosity, and imagined futures, whereas prevention-focused motivation often served as a practical starting point. Also, self-efficacy enabled learners to manage difficulties, sustain, or even expand their proactive Malay learning practices in digital environments. The findings provide evidence-based guidance for designing digital learning interventions that support autonomous, self-directed involvement with less commonly taught languages in digital settings.