Child adoption in Nigeria at the crossroads: A critical review of child rights, sociocultural norms, legal fragmentation and adoption challenges in the post-child rights act era

Abstract Background: Child adoption is an important child-protection and family-building strategy that provides permanent family care for orphaned, abandoned and vulnerable children. In Nigeria, however, adoption remains shaped by complex interactions among child-rights concerns, cultural and religious beliefs, legal fragmentation, institutional weaknesses and emerging threats such as child trafficking, baby factories and illegal adoption networks. Objective: This narrative review critically examines child adoption in Nigeria, focusing on child rights, cultural norms, legal fragmentation, governance challenges and emerging threats, while identifying policy and practice reforms to strengthen child welfare and adoption outcomes. Methods: A narrative review was conducted using peer-reviewed literature, legal documents, policy reports, international conventions and grey literature published between 2009 and 2026. Thematic analysis explored the evolution of adoption practices, legal and policy frameworks, child-rights considerations, sociocultural influences, governance challenges, comparative international experiences and reform opportunities. Key Findings: Although the Child Rights Act 2003 provides a statutory framework for adoption, uneven domestication and implementation across states have resulted in legal inconsistencies and variable child protection standards. Cultural attachment to biological parenthood, lineage preservation, inheritance concerns, religious influences and adoption-related stigma continue to limit acceptance. Administrative inefficiencies, weak regulatory oversight, inadequate data systems and procedural delays contribute to the persistence of informal adoption practices, trafficking networks and baby factories. Evidence from African and high-income countries demonstrates that successful adoption systems depend on strong implementation capacity, integrated data systems, child-rights-centred governance and effective post-adoption support services. Conclusion: Strengthening adoption in Nigeria requires harmonisation of adoption laws, improved institutional and regulatory capacity, robust monitoring systems, enhanced professional training and sustained community engagement. A child-rights-centred approach that prioritizes identity, participation, protection, and family life is essential for building a transparent, accountable and equitable adoption system that safeguards the welfare and long-term development of vulnerable children. Keywords: Child adoption, Child rights, Adoption law, Child protection, Nigeria