Green metal–organic frameworks for soil and water remediation: From contaminant removal to circular resource recovery

Soil and water contamination by heavy metals, excess nutrients, pesticides, antibiotics, and other emerging pollutants poses a major threat to environmental sustainability and agricultural productivity. Conventional remediation technologies are often constrained by limited selectivity, inefficient resource utilization, and the generation of secondary wastes, creating a need for more sustainable solutions. Green metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have recently emerged as promising multifunctional materials owing to their high surface areas, tunable porosity, adaptable surface chemistry, and potential for synthesis from renewable and waste-derived feedstocks. This review critically evaluates recent advances in green MOFs for soil and water remediation, encompassing heavy metal immobilization, organic pollutant removal, nutrient recovery, controlled-release fertilization, and photocatalytic degradation. Particular emphasis is placed on waste-derived MOFs, biochar–MOF composites, biodegradable polymer-supported MOFs, and membrane-integrated systems that enhance sustainability and practical applicability. Recent studies demonstrate that these materials can achieve rapid contaminant removal, high adsorption capacities, prolonged nutrient release, and measurable improvements in crop productivity while reducing environmental footprints through greener synthesis routes. Unlike previous reviews, this work integrates remediation performance with resource recovery, waste valorization, and circular bioeconomy perspectives. Key challenges related to large-scale production, long-term stability, regeneration, and environmental safety are critically discussed, together with emerging opportunities in circular nutrient management, and carbon sequestration. Green MOFs represent a versatile platform for coupling environmental remediation with resource recovery, supporting the transition toward sustainable and climate-resilient environmental management systems.