Effects of carbamazepine on calcium concentration, calcification, and enzymatic markers in the gill tissue of Chlamys islandica

, histopathology supported by image processing techniques, and both enzymatic and non-enzymatic biomarker analyses Our findings reveal previously unreported effects of carbamazepine on the gill tissue of Chlamys islandica. We observed increased localised calcium deposition within gill tissue, accompanied by a reduction in overall tissue calcium concentration, suggesting altered calcium regulation and distribution. Moreover, exposure to carbamazepine impaired biomarker responses within Chlamys islandica gill tissue, with acetylcholinesterase activity and malondialdehyde levels showing the strongest concentration-dependent responses. These results indicate that carbamazepine influences gill physiology beyond oxidative stress pathways, affecting tissue mass, calcium regulation, and calcification processes in Chlamys islandica.