A comprehensive review of phage immobilization and encapsulation for the application in food safety

Phages are viruses that exhibit exceptional specificity to their bacterial hosts. They can control foodborne pathogens, which makes them potentially useful for applications in the food industry, particularly in biocontrol and biosensing. However, the direct application of phages in the food industry poses challenges due to their limited survival and reduced infectivity under extreme environmental conditions, such as high processing temperatures, pH variations, and UV light exposure. Therefore, immobilization or encapsulation of phages within the food matrix is critical for their effective application. Biopolymers are known for their excellent carrier properties and high biodegradability. The entrapment of phages within biopolymers protects them from damage, enhances their activity, enables controlled release, and increases their antibacterial potency. This article presents a comprehensive overview of phage immobilization and encapsulation in biopolymers, discussing their stability, release, and infectivity within biopolymer-based systems. It also outlines the application of the phage-loaded biopolymer system in the food industry, both pre- and post-harvest, and highlights the challenges associated with its real-world implementation, offering guidance for future research.