Indicators for Assessing Urban Resilience to Climate Change

Cities face escalating climate risks, yet their resilience efforts remain fragmented and poorly measured. Our systematic review of 161 studies and 1,064 indicators provides a taxonomy of indicators and reveals critical gaps. While 96.6% of indicators are quantitative, nearly all lack time-bound targets, which are essential for tracking progress. More concerning, only one-third explicitly address climate change, with mitigation strategies underrepresented. Current indicators and assessment frameworks emphasize technical infrastructure while neglecting governance processes and equity considerations, both of which are vital to inclusive adaptation. Geographic disparities compound these limitations, as African, South American, and Oceanian cities remain largely invisible despite facing acute climate vulnerabilities. A promising path forward emerges through indicators that integrate co-benefits across adaptation, mitigation, and social equity. We propose hybrid frameworks combining universal metrics and indicators with context-sensitive ones, embedded within participatory governance structures. Without such integration, cities risk optimizing for measurable outcomes while missing opportunities for transformative urban resilience.