Designing for Dogs: How Off-Leash Zone Features Shape Dog Behavioral Needs and Owner Experience in the Urban Context

As urbanization intensifies, Off-Leash Zones (OLZs) have become essential infrastructures supporting the welfare of companion dogs in cities. This study investigates the effects of OLZ size and the presence of agility equipment on canine behavior and welfare in the Brussels-Capital Region. A total of 247 dogs in nine OLZs were observed using standardized ethological methods, and owner surveys to explore perceptions and use of OLZs. Results show that dogs in OLZs exhibit greater behavioral diversity, more positive-valence behaviors, and increased human-dog interaction compared to on-leash controls. While surface area did not significantly affect behavioral outcomes, OLZs with agility equipment were associated with higher activity levels and social engagement. However, the equipment was underused and often unsuitable for small dogs. Owner preferences emphasized environmental quality, safety, and natural enrichment features over artificial structures. These findings highlight the importance of designing OLZs that promote natural behavior and accommodate diverse dog populations. Recommendations include incorporating vegetation, varied terrain, and sensory stimuli, alongside inclusive and well-maintained agility features. OLZs support canine welfare and foster social interaction among owners, underscoring their relevance in urban planning.HIGHLIGHTS OLZs support greater behavioral diversity and more positive emotional states in urban dogs compared to on-leash conditions.Agility equipment increases physical activity and intraspecific interactions but is often underutilized and poorly adapted to small dog breeds.Dog owners prioritize safety, environmental quality, and perceived dog enjoyment when selecting OLZs, over proximity alone.