Xhosa Sticks as Cultural, Nontimber Forest Products in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

Nontimber forest products are used for a wide variety of purposes, including household consumption, income, and culture. However, the cultural dimensions and significance are considerably understudied. This article reports on a study of the cultural significance of two types of sticks ( induku and umnqayi ) carried by males of the Xhosa ethnic group in South Africa. Each of the sticks is made or given to males who have just been through initiation from boyhood into manhood. An induku is a multipurpose stick and symbolizes what it means to be a Xhosa man (amadoda EsiXhosa). An umnqayi is also associated with male identity but is interpreted as a symbol of peace and is carried at different times to an induku , mostly notably when approaching a family with a proposal of marriage. Most of the study participants described amadoda EsiXhosa who did not have an induku and umnqayi in negative terms. Both types of sticks are crafted from specific, locally harvested species, with Olea europaea subsp. africana being the most commonly used for induku and Diospyros lyciodes and Mystroxylon aethiopicum (among others) for umnqayi . Although many amadoda EsiXhosa craft their own sticks, there is a growing trade with crafters selling Xhosa sticks alongside busy roads and earning what they deemed as a meaningful income. Despite the deep cultural significance of Xhosa sticks, there was some commentary that urbanization was perhaps diminishing the practice of carrying an induku , but not an umnqayi . This study provides a novel case example of the biocultural basis of NTFP use.