Multi-dimensional evidence reveals genetic, demographic and ecological vulnerability in endangered Ormosia microphylla

BACKGROUND: Endangered woody plants are threatened by habitat degradation, demographic instability, and genetic erosion. Ormosia microphylla (small-leaved Ormosia) is an endangered tree, but how genetic, demographic, and environmental factors jointly contribute to its decline remains insufficiently resolved. METHODS: We investigated the age structure of seven wild O. microphylla populations and resequenced 62 adult individuals to assess genetic variation, population structure, linkage disequilibrium, gene flow and demographic history. In three representative populations, we further quantified seed production, germination, logging traces, soil properties and bird diversity, and integrated these variables using exploratory Spearman correlations, standardized multi-factor indices and principal component analysis (PCA). RESULTS: Overall, 71% of the surveyed populations exhibited unstable age structures. All populations showed low genome-wide nucleotide diversity (π < 0.005) and were grouped into three geographically interpretable genetic clusters: GX, HG and HN. TreeMix detected limited gene flow among clusters, and smc + + inferred historical declines in effective population size, with a slower decline in HN than in GX and HG. Rapid LD decay indicated that low diversity was not accompanied by extensive genome-wide linkage. Selective sweep analyses identified cluster-specific enriched pathways, including cutin, suberin and wax biosynthesis in HG and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis in HN. Among representative populations, all produced viable seeds, but seed production declined annually and germination was constrained by the seed coat. Spearman correlations among bird diversity, stump counts, seed output and recruitment were weak and non-significant. PCA indicated that regeneration status, mature-tree availability and reproductive output defined the primary population-performance gradient, whereas disturbance pressure and biotic support formed a secondary external-context gradient. CONCLUSIONS: O. microphylla vulnerability is associated with interacting genetic risks, demographic imbalance, reproductive limitation and external pressures, supporting targeted in situ protection, within-cluster genetic management and cluster-representative ex situ conservation.