The good and the bad: A qualitative investigation of students' perspectives on their problematic smartphone use

Background and aims: Problematic smartphone use (PSU) features remain debated. This study aimed to identify both parallels and distinctions between PSU and established addiction criteria (DSM-5 and ICD-11), to critically examine the appropriateness of applying these criteria to PSU, and to explore potential etiological factors. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 28 university students from 17 European countries who scored above the established cut-off values for problematic smartphone use on the Smartphone Addiction Scale-Short Version (SAS-SV; >31 for males and >33 for females). Thematic analysis was applied to explore patterns of meaning across participants' accounts. Results: Participants reported addiction-like symptoms, including craving, salience and preoccupation, negative consequences, loss of control, coping, and tolerance- and withdrawal-like experiences. In addition, the smartphone's vital roles in daily life, habitual use, and its role as a disruptive distraction were highlighted. A substantial proportion of participants described experiences consistent with multiple DSM-5 or ICD-11 addiction criteria; however, all participants emphasized substantial positive consequences of smartphone use, often outweighing the negative. A central "trade-off process" between positive and negative consequences emerged, alongside motives and perceived social norms, as key elements in PSU etiology. Discussion and conclusions: Findings suggest that directly and uncritically applying existing DSM-5 or ICD-11 addiction criteria to PSU warrants careful empirical and conceptual scrutiny. Future research should move beyond existing addiction criteria to also address the dynamic balance between benefits and harms, and the roles of motives and social norms in shaping use patterns.