Human–carnivore conflict in the human-dominated Sirso landscape, southern Ethiopia

Effective management of human–carnivore conflict (HCC) is essential for promoting sustainable coexistence in shared landscapes. This study investigated the patterns, economic costs, determinants, and mitigation strategies of livestock depredation in the Sirso landscape of southern Ethiopia. An agro-ecology-based stratified random sampling approach was used to select six kebeles, from which 343 households were proportionally sampled using a systematic random technique. Data were collected in 2025 through semi-structured interviews and key informant interviews (KIIs). Overall, 43.4% of respondents reported a total of 349 HCC events. Livestock depredation was the predominant form of conflict (74.5%), followed by attacks on humans (19.2%). A total of 1,280 head of livestock were lost during the study period (≈256 annually), with small stock most affected, particularly poultry (39.7%) and sheep (31.3%). The main problematic carnivores identified were spotted hyenas, leopards, jackals, cheetahs, and small carnivores. Agro-ecologically, lowland areas experienced most conflicts (65.7%); spatially, homesteads experienced most conflicts (70.8%). Temporally, conflict peaked in the wet season (77.3%) and at night (65.5%). The estimated carnivore-induced economic loss during the study period was US$118,167.2 (≈US$23,633.4 annually), and spotted hyenas (35.4%, ≈US$41,830.6) were the primary predators. Cattle depredation caused the greatest economic impact on households, amounting to US$80,580.1 during the study period. In response to depredation, most households (58.6%, n = 201) reported lethal control of predators; as a result, 110 carnivores were killed during the study period. Hunting was the most commonly employed retaliatory method (61.83%, n = 68), and spotted hyenas were the most targeted ( n = 50, 45.45%). Applying physical barriers was the most common preventive strategy (40.4%), followed by active guarding (37.2%). The findings highlight the urgent need for context-specific conflict mitigation strategies, improved livestock management practices, and community-based education programs to support both wildlife conservation and rural livelihoods in human-dominated landscapes. The presence of guarding dogs, economic status, and the location of predation were key determinants of livestock depredation. To foster both sustainable wildlife conservation and rural development, effective conflict mitigation and community education are essential.