Integration of Three‐Dimensional Cell Culture Techniques and Photobiomodulation for Supportive Differentiation of Adipose‐Derived Stem Cells into Smooth Muscle

Photobiomodulation (PBM) has gained recognition as a promising, non-invasive strategy to enhance the differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) into smooth muscle cells (SMCs), particularly when used together with a three-dimensional (3D) hydrogel culture system. This review explores the key mechanisms by which PBM modulates cellular behavior, along with its role in the promotion of SMCs lineage commitment in ADSCs. We investigate the influence of various light parameters including wavelength, intensity, energy density, exposure time and duration on cell responses such as proliferation, metabolic activity, gene expression and functional maturation. Moreover, we scrutinize the different hydrogel scaffolds, their compositions and the respective effects on PBM efficacy and consequential cellular outcomes. We also highlight the importance of scaffold design in mimicking the native extracellular matrix and how along with certain mechanical cues, they play a vital role in supporting stem cell behavior. By identifying current challenges, gaps in the literature and proposing future recommendations; this review aims to provide insights into the optimization of PBM protocols to improve SMCs differentiation of ADSCs, ultimately with the intention of integrating PBM to optimize regenerative therapies for use in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering (TE) strategies for vascular conditions and other smooth muscle-related diseases.