Mizusumashi as a precursor to the pull and pitch system: Empirical evidence using PLS-SEM

Abstract Lean manufacturing integrates various tools to optimize production processes; however, the hypothesized influence relationships between Mizusumashi, the Pull system, and Pitch have been scarcely explored empirically. This study developed and validated a structural equation model based on partial least squares (PLS-SEM) to examine the direct and indirect interrelationships between these three fundamental constructs of the Toyota Production System. A total of 773 valid responses were collected using a content-validated questionnaire administered to operational and administrative personnel in the maquiladora industry in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico. The results confirmed the three proposed hypotheses ( p < 0.001): Mizusumashi significantly influenced the Pull system (β = 0.683, ES = 0.467) and Pitch both directly (β = 0.453) and indirectly through the Pull system (β = 0.259), with a total effect of β = 0.712. The Pull system, acting as a mediator, also positively influenced Pitch (β = 0.380). The model explains 58.5% of the variance in Pitch with a Tenenhaus index (GoF = 0.619), which confirms its robustness. The sensitivity analysis based on conditional probabilities shows that when Mizusumashi operates at high levels, the probability of achieving an optimal Pitch is 60.6%, compared with 5.2% when the supply is deficient. These findings provide quantitative empirical evidence of the systemic integration of lean tools and offer criteria for managers to prioritize investments in internal supply systems as a critical antecedent of production synchronization.