Observer-related factors and the perception of cultural ecosystem (dis)services

While Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES) are co-produced through interactions between people and nature, the specific individual factors that shape these perceptions remain poorly understood, limiting the ability to manage green spaces inclusively. To address this gap, this study applies a co-production framework to explore the relationship between different observer-related factors and the perception of CES benefits and ecosystem disservices (EDS). To provide a more comprehensive understanding, we consider multiple dimensions of these factors, including human capital (socio-demographics), cultural capital (values toward nature), and characteristics of interaction with nature (flow of CES). We surveyed 684 visitors across seven green spaces in the Małopolska Region (Poland), selected for their ecological and social diversity. Our findings reveal that the relationship between these factors and perceived CES benefits and EDS varies significantly based on the type of benefit/EDS. Benefits such as connection to nature, spirituality, physical regeneration, a sense of freedom, and support for others’ development were strongly associated with all three observer-related dimensions. In contrast, benefits like aesthetics, self-development, and a sense of belonging appeared largely universal and independent of these factors. EDS patterns also differed: fear, discomfort, and reluctance were linked to gender, while anger, irritation, and sadness correlated with visit frequency. These results highlight the importance of inclusive management to tailor green spaces to diverse user needs. We propose a dual approach combining infrastructural solutions with educational and co-creative interventions, providing a flexible framework adaptable to various governance contexts.