Urban sacred forests as socio-cultural infrastructure: visitor perspectives on ecosystem services and engagement in Kanazawa, Japan

Urban sacred forests are culturally embedded green spaces that contribute to urban sustainability, yet their roles remain insufficiently integrated into urban planning and green infrastructure frameworks. This study examines urban sacred forests as socio-cultural infrastructure by analyzing visitor recognition of ecosystem services, patterns of engagement, and interest in local knowledge in Kanazawa, Japan. A visitor-based survey was conducted across six shrine and temple forests between June and July 2023, yielding 342 valid responses. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and correlation analyses were applied to examine relationships among visit frequency, ecosystem service recognition, community participation, and learning interest. The results indicate that visitors predominantly recognize cultural and experiential ecosystem services, particularly scenic beauty, spiritual connection, stress reduction, and connection to nature, whereas regulating and socio-economic services are less salient. Visit frequency is positively associated with community participation, with frequent visitors more likely to report involvement in site-related activities. These findings highlight the multifunctional role of urban sacred forests as spaces that support well-being, social capital, and cultural continuity. By functioning as socio-cultural infrastructure, sacred forests complement conventional urban green spaces with culturally grounded, relational benefits that are not readily captured by standard planning approaches. Integrating urban sacred forests into green infrastructure and cultural heritage policies, alongside participatory and intergenerational governance strategies, can strengthen their contribution to resilient, inclusive, and culturally rich cities.