Phytochemical characterization and bioactivity evaluation of extracts from different parts of Salvia ceratophylla

In this study, the phytochemical profile and biological activities of ethanol extracts of Salvia ceratophylla were comprehensively investigated. LC-MS/MS analyses identified numerous phenolic compounds, with rosmarinic acid determined as the dominant constituent across all extracts, reaching its highest level in the SCL extract (25140.57 µg/g). While hesperidin was consistently present in all extracts (336.37-361.91 µg/g), apigenin was found at notably high levels, particularly in the SCF extract (4720.14 µg/g). Additionally, malic acid (3430.91 µg/g, SCF) and caffeic acid (205.90 µg/g, SCL) were quantified at significant levels. GC-MS analyses revealed high concentrations of sterols and triterpenoids, including β-sitosterol (SCR: 5611.73 µg/g; SCM: 9733.81 µg/g), 7α-hydroxy-β-sitosterol (SCM: 8826.46 µg/g), oleanolic acid (38842.62 µg/g, SCM), and ursolic acid (74385.03 µg/g, SCM). These compounds are well-documented in the literature for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. When antioxidant activities were examined, the SCL extract exhibited the strongest effect in the DPPH (IC50: 45.14 µg/mL), ABTS (IC50: 5.68 µg/mL), and CUPRAC (A0.5: 3.33 µg/mL) assays. It was found that all extracts generally showed no toxicity in the healthy cell line (PDF); in fact, some extracts were found to have a cell-proliferation-promoting effect. It was found that they did not exhibit any cytotoxic activity in the Caco-2 cell line. In contrast, the SCM fraction exhibited moderate cytotoxicity in the SkOV3 cell line, with a viability rate of 68.12%. Enzyme inhibition activities were generally weak; however, the SCR extract displayed significant inhibition against BChE (52.01±1.33%), while the SCM extract exhibited limited activity against urease (5.25±0.22%) and collagenase (8.01±0.15%). In conclusion, S. ceratophylla extracts possess strong antioxidant capacity due to their high phenolic and flavonoid contents, alongside a rich sterol and triterpenoid composition, highlighting their potential as a source of bioactive compounds warranting further investigation. These findings support the utilization of the species as a source of natural antioxidants and bioactive compounds in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.