Invisible strain: Emotional and economic burdens of women's informal labour in Kerala

Despite Kerala's acclaimed human development metrics, a sizable minority of women continue to labour in insecure and low-wage informal jobs. This study explores the multiple emotional and economic costs incurred by women in five unorganised sectors—domestic work, street vending, care work, garment/home-based production and small retail—in both rural and urban settings. Using a compound method longitudinal approach, the analysis traces intersectional layers of vulnerability shaped by caste, religion, marital status and residency, alongside systemic factors such as pay discrimination, unpaid work, ecological fragility and technological exclusion. Panel surveys, ethnographic interviews and smartphone-based questionnaires were administered to 560 women across six districts in Kerala. In addition to policy audits of unorganised employment zones, the study draws on WHO-5 wellbeing indices and time-use diaries to assess emotional labour, stress loads and psychosocial risk. The findings indicate a robust correlation between employment precarity and psychological discomfort, exacerbated by limited access to digital tools, workplace harassment and climate-related disturbances. Although initiatives such as Kudumbashree and NREGS provide partial support, fundamental policy gaps and insufficient enforcement mechanisms persist. The study emphasizes the urgent need for intersectional, sector-specific and rights-based reforms in Kerala's unorganised labour landscape. Localised care infrastructures, digital access initiatives for women, legislative safeguards for informal enterprises and the formal recognition of unpaid care work are among the key recommendations. Overall, the study advances current scholarship by demonstrating how ‘invisible work’ generates both economic stagnation and invisible strain, demanding greater policy attention and deeper theoretical engagement.