From cognitive and affective factors to academic writing: How does AI usage frequency shape student performance?

Purpose The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into higher education has significantly transformed academic writing by enhancing students' capabilities in terms of organization, coherence, and critical thinking. This study examined the predictive relationships of AI-based writing tools on Academic Writing Performance (AWPS). Additionally, it explores the mediating role of the Frequency of AI Usage (AUF) in the relationships among students' cognitive and affective factors, specifically Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK) and Self-Regulated Learning (PSRL). Design/methodology/approach A quantitative cross-sectional survey involving 629 university students from various parts of Indonesia was conducted, and the data were examined using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to confirm the model's reliability and validity. Findings The results revealed that AUF significantly mediated the connections between TPACK and PSRL with AWPS, demonstrating that consistent AI tool use is vital for improving academic writing. Although Technology Anxiety (TA) did not exhibit a significant moderating effect, it remains an essential factor that may influence students' confidence and engagement with AI tools. Research limitations/implications These findings highlight the need for instructional approaches that integrate AI responsibly while promoting critical thinking, digital literacy, and self-regulated learning in classrooms. Originality/value Ultimately, this study offers meaningful insights into how AI adoption in higher education can support reflective, innovative, and globally competitive academic development in the future.