Spatial inequality and temporal dynamics of water sanitation and hygiene services in Manipur

Access to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) services is a critical determinant of public health and regional development, yet spatial disparities persist in many parts of India. This study examines the district-level spatial distribution, inequality, and temporal changes in WASH indicators in Manipur between 2011 and 2018. Using data from the Census (2011) and the NSSO 76th Round (2018), six indicators representing water, sanitation, and hygiene dimensions were analyzed. A composite WASH index was constructed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), retaining multiple components with eigenvalues greater than one to capture the multidimensional nature of WASH conditions. The results reveal substantial improvements in sanitation and hygiene indicators, with near-universal coverage. However, access to improved water supply remains uneven, and safe disposal of excreta and wastewater continues to be critically low. Spatial analysis highlights a shift in the traditional valley–hill disparity, with several hill districts showing improvement, while some valley districts exhibit stagnation or minimal improvement. Inequality measures, including the Theil index, indicate moderate disparities in water access and extremely high inequality in wastewater management. Rank mobility analysis further demonstrates reordering of district performance over time. The findings underscore that while progress in WASH infrastructure is evident, the lack of safe waste management and persistent spatial inequalities constrain overall development outcomes. The study emphasizes the need for a shift from access-based interventions to integrated, sustainability-oriented WASH planning with district-specific strategies. Such an approach is essential for achieving equitable and safely managed WASH services in line with broader development goals.