Reading, language, and literacy development in children with intellectual disabilities: A psychological perspective from India

Intellectual disability (ID) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by significant limitations in cognitive functioning and adaptive behavior, which profoundly influence language development and reading acquisition. This review synthesizes psychological and empirical literature to examine the cognitive and linguistic mechanisms underlying reading difficulties among children with ID, with a specific focus on phonological awareness, decoding, working memory, processing speed, vocabulary, and comprehension. Drawing on theoretical frameworks, such as the simple view of reading, information processing theory, and the dual-route model, the article critically analyses why conventional literacy instruction often fails to meet the needs of this population. The review integrates findings from empirical studies on assessment tools, national policies, and evidence-based interventions, including systematic phonics, multisensory instruction, repeated reading, scaffolded comprehension, and assistive technologies. While these approaches demonstrate effectiveness, the literature reveals inconsistencies in implementation and limited context-specific research in India. The article argues for early identification, targeted instruction, and cognitively informed pedagogy to improve literacy outcomes. It further highlights gaps in teacher preparation, intervention research, and classroom practice, emphasizing the need for culturally responsive and evidence-based reading programs.