Visible Light Positioning for Accurate 3D Indoor Localization

Visible light positioning (VLP) based on received signal strength (RSS) offers a low-cost solution for indoor localization, being easily implemented in a warehouse based on existing infrastructure. However, RSS-based VLP remains challenging in 3D and yields subpar performance compared to 2D due to the larger localization space, as well as the presence of dark spots where many LEDs are not bright enough. This limits the practical use cases of RSS-based VLP in industrial applications. We study the performance of RSS-based VLP on a 3D simulated environment by training various machine learning models, including Gaussian processes and Kolmogorov–Arnold networks on different representations of RSS data. Our findings show that the use of Gaussian processes for predicting distances to LEDs coupled with a logarithmic transformation and multilateration leads to both high-accuracy and high-precision predictions under thermal noise (p95 localization error of 10 cm under 50 dB SNR). With this technique, RSS-based VLP reaches levels of accuracy in our simulated 3D environment that are comparable to those reported for 2D applications, supporting the extension of RSS-based VLP to height-varying industrial use cases.