More Support, Limited Impact: Holistic Support Services and Student Success at U.S. Four-Year Colleges

Drawing on Tinto's integration framework, Bean's attrition model, and culturally inclusive perspectives on belonging and campus environments, this study tests whether increases in holistic support intensity were associated with student retention and completion recovery after the pandemic-era 2020 break. Using a national Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) institution-year panel of U.S. four-year colleges (2015–2024), we estimate fixed-effects models linking student-services spending per full-time-equivalent student (FTE) to full-time retention and six-year completion. We triangulate institutional findings with Healthy Minds Study (HMS) aggregate trends (2019–2025). Support intensity rose across sectors; retention improved modestly; completion declined. Lagged support was positively associated with retention in the weighted primary model, but sensitivity checks support cautious interpretation. Results suggest that support expansion mitigated attrition pressure while recovery remained incomplete under sustained demand.