Tracing palaeoecological footprints of Late Holocene monsoon variability and vegetation dynamics in the tropical sal forest of India’s Core Monsoon Zone

Abstract This study reconstructs Late Holocene vegetation and Indian summer monsoon (ISM) variability over the past ∼2700 years from the Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve, located in central India’s Core Monsoon Zone (CMZ). High-resolution pollen data reveal five distinct vegetational phases, with the period between ∼2700 and 2300 cal yr BP characterized by a dense moist deciduous forest dominated by Shorea robusta , indicating strong monsoonal activity. The interval between ∼2300 and 1600 cal yr BP shows four distinct sub-phases: a warm and humid episode (∼2300–2200 cal yr BP), a pronounced dry spell (∼2200–2030 cal yr BP), an ameliorating phase (∼2030–1680 cal yr BP), and renewed monsoon intensification (∼1680–1600 cal yr BP). A moderately strong and stable ISM persisted until ∼820 cal yr BP, followed by a dry, open vegetation regime (∼820–400 cal yr BP) coinciding with increased anthropogenic indicators. Since ∼400 cal yr BP, the resurgence of moist deciduous taxa reflects climatic recovery and forest regeneration. Pollen-based climate reconstructions provide valuable insights into long-term monsoon–vegetation interactions in tropical India.