Farmyard manure improves the productivity and profitability of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) under semi-arid conditions through integrated nutrient management

Cotton cultivation in semi-arid areas is often limited by insufficient soil organic matter content and increasing fertilizer costs. The integrated use of composted farmyard manure (FYM) with mineral fertilizers may enhance crop yields and agricultural profitability in irrigated, calcareous soils. This study evaluated the potential of integrating composted FYM with mineral fertilizers to optimize cotton productivity, reduce chemical inputs, and promote circular agriculture. Nine fertilizer treatments were applied to the ‘Candia’ cotton variety, and data related to morphological, physiological, yield, and fiber quality traits were collected. Treatments consisted of control (no fertilizer application), 350 kg ha -1 urea (46% N), 100, 200, and 300 kg ha -1 diammonium phosphate (DAP) + 350 kg ha -1 urea, 20, 40, and 60 t ha -1 FYM + 350 kg ha -1 urea, and 100 t ha -1 FYM without urea. Fertilizer treatments significantly influenced the number of bolls, boll weight, boll seed cotton weight, seed cotton yield, ginning outturn, and fiber yield. However, fiber quality traits remained unaffected by fertilizer treatments. The highest seed cotton yield (5207.3 kg ha⁻¹) was recorded with 60 t ha⁻¹ FYM combined with urea (32.9% improvement compared to the control 3918.5 kg ha⁻¹). This was associated with increased values of boll weight (6.70 g vs. 5.05 g), ginning outturn (44.03% vs. 40.06%), and fiber output (2292.9 kg ha⁻¹ versus 1569.8 kg ha⁻¹). Conversely, the highest values for plant height (82.40 cm) and NDVI (0.50) were observed in the 300 kg ha -1 + urea treatment. The economic analysis revealed the highest net income ($693.29 ha⁻¹) with FYM at 60 t ha⁻¹ + urea and a benefit-cost ratio of 1.57. It is concluded that integrating FYM at 60 t ha⁻¹ with 350 kg ha - ¹ urea increased cotton yield and economic returns without affecting fiber quality. This study was conducted over a single growing season at a single location; therefore, multi-year testing that reports on soil and plant nutrient dynamics is needed to support broader recommendations.