A Comparative Study of Three Apparent Resistivity Methods and Their Engineering Applicability in Artificial-Source Frequency-Domain Electromagnetic Exploration

Artificial-source frequency-domain electromagnetic methods are important tools for deep mineral exploration and concealed geological structure detection. Apparent resistivity is a key parameter linking measured electromagnetic fields to the interpretation of subsurface electrical structures, and its calculation method directly affects geological interpretation and engineering applicability. Although substantial efforts have been devoted to the theoretical development, data processing, and practical application of different apparent resistivity formulations, most previous studies have focused on the analysis and improvement of a single method. Systematic comparisons of the main apparent resistivity formulations under unified conditions remain limited, particularly in terms of deep basement characterization, anti-interference performance, and engineering applicability. To fill this gap, this study systematically compares the E−−Ex wide-field apparent resistivity, the E−−Ex far-zone apparent resistivity, and the E−−Zxy Cagniard apparent resistivity. Through theoretical derivation, forward modeling of typical one-dimensional models, and field verification, the differences among these three formulations in geological characterization, anti-interference capability, and engineering applicability are analyzed, with the aim of clarifying their applicable boundaries and selection principles for artificial-source frequency-domain electromagnetic exploration.