Environmental performance of lead-carbon batteries in different energy storage applications

In the context of the global pursuit of carbon neutrality, energy storage systems must deliver both high efficiency and environmental sustainability. Lead‑carbon batteries (LCBs), as an advanced modification of lead-acid batteries, have emerged as a promising technology for stationary energy storage due to their improved cycling performance and cost advantages. However, their life cycle impacts remain insufficiently studied. This study presents a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment of LCBs, indicating that battery manufacturing and upstream processes such as spent lead-acid battery disassembly and recycling dominate environmental impacts and contribute on average 36.6% and 16.5% across impact categories. Downstream recycling offsets up to 65.7% of these impacts, markedly mitigating the overall burden. The incorporation of carbon fiber significantly increases the environmental burden compared with graphite and activated carbon. Analysis of three representative applications in China—grid storage, user-side storage, and backup power systems—reveals that backup systems exhibit the greatest environmental burdens, primarily due to their low discharge utilization and limited energy throughput. These findings offer a scientific basis for optimizing material selection, advancing recycling strategies, and guiding the sustainable deployment of LCB technologies in future energy systems.