Economic threats related to the global commons: A comparative study of areas beyond national jurisdiction

This article examines the growing economic threats associated with areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), including Antarctica, outer space, the high seas, and the deep seabed. Drawing on comparative analysis of legal instruments, scientific studies, and international reports, it identifies two overarching categories of risks: mature threats already visible in practice, such as monopolization, uncertain returns on frontier industries, IUU fishing, and piracy; and speculative threats arising from regulatory gaps, geopolitical competition, and technological inequalities. The study further distinguishes threats linked to resource exploitation from those resulting from ecosystem degradation, including climate impacts, tourism pressures, pollution, and orbital debris. It argues that fragmented governance and weak enforcement exacerbate these threats, creating systemic vulnerabilities that impact global economic stability. By offering the first comprehensive cross-domain typology of economic threats in the ABNJ, the article highlights the convergence of economic, environmental, and geopolitical pressures, underscoring the need for strengthened multilateral governance.