Three-Dimensional Reconstruction and Real-Time Deformation of Flexible Bodies: A Scoping Review (2009–2025)

Following the PRISMA-ScR framework for scoping reviews, we systematically searched five databases (Scopus, IEEE Xplore, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Web of Science) using a Boolean query combining real-time processing, 3D reconstruction, and deformation modelling terms. From 86 records identified, 56 peer-reviewed publications (2009–2025) were retained after two-stage screening and organized into a unified taxonomy covering sensing modalities (RGB-D, LiDAR, tactile), reconstruction pipelines (volumetric fusion, NRSfM, neural radiance fields), and deformation models (FEM, PBD, mass-spring, GNN-based surrogates, differentiable simulators). Of the 56 included works, 60% were published between 2022 and 2025, confirming the field’s rapid growth. Neural and implicit representations account for 20% of contributions, FEM-based methods for 16%, and hybrid or application-specific pipelines for 21%. Four systemic gaps emerge: the absence of a unified physics-aware benchmark; unresolved speed–accuracy trade-offs (PBD achieves >30 FPS on desktop GPUs for 103–104 vertex meshes but lacks mapping to physical material constants (Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio), limiting material fidelity; full-order FEM ensures physically consistent stress–strain behavior but runs at only 1–10 FPS without order reduction; reduced-order FEM recovers interactive rates for low-frequency deformation modes); fragile handling of occlusions and multi-object contact; and limited end-to-end integration of sensing and simulation. The findings support the presentation of a research roadmap centered on model order reduction, differentiable physics, multimodal sensing fusion, and standardized evaluation protocols, with implications for robust digital twins of deformable environments.