Effects of Different Breathing Methods on Intraocular Pressure, Ocular Haemodynamics, and Cardiovascular Responses During Push-Ups and the Plank Exercise

Background. Modern sedentary lifestyle increases the risk of ocular disorders, while participation in resistance and bodyweight training continues to grow among young adults. Previous studies indicate that exercise-induced changes in intraocular pressure and ocular haemodynamics depend on exercise type, intensity, and breathing strategy, particularly during isometric efforts and the Valsalva manoeuvre (VM). However, evidence regarding the ocular and cardiovascular effects of different breathing techniques during common bodyweight exercises remains limited. Aims. To evaluate the effects of different breathing techniques on intraocular pressure (IOP), ocular and systemic haemodynamics, pain, fatigue, and intensity perception during push-ups and the plank exercise. Methods. The study included 40 physically active men and women (mean age 24.2 ± 5.1 years). Participants were tested before exercise, immediately after exercise, and at 5, 10, and 15 minutes after exercise. Retinal microcirculation was assessed using an “Optomed Aurora” eye fundus camera, IOP was measured with an “Icare” tonometer, arterial pressure was measured using an “Omron BP742N” Series 5 device, subjective muscle fatigue and pain were evaluated using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), and exercise intensity was assessed using the Borg Scale. Results. During the static plank exercise, mean arterial pressure (MAP) increased by approximately 4% while breathing, whereas no increase and a slight decreasing trend was observed during the VM. Dynamic push-ups induced a 3–6% increase in MAP immediately after exercise, followed by a decrease at 10–15 minutes after exercise, particularly during the VM. Changes in IOP depended on exercise type: static exercises caused only a slight decrease, whereas push-ups resulted in a more pronounced, transient reduction in IOP, especially at 5–10 minutes after exercise. Dynamic exercises also had a greater effect on the arteriovenous ratio (AVR), due to increased sympathetic nervous system activation. Subjective sensations such as pain, fatigue, and tremor were minimal during the plank exercise, whereas during push-ups the VM tended to increase effort, although the differences were not statistically significant. Conclusions. Dynamic exercises such as push-ups induce greater systemic and ocular physiological responses than static exercises, and the VM amplifies haemodynamic fluctuations and the subjective perception of effort. Changes in ocular parameters (IOP, AVR) are small, temporary, and primarily dependent on exercise type. Keywords: Valsalva manoeuvre; push-ups; plank-exercise; mean arterial pressure; intraocular pressure; retinal microcirculation