Multimodal accessibility to healthy food in Stockholm: Identifying food deserts and urban inequalities across travel modes

Access to healthy food is a key component of urban sustainability and spatial equity, yet disparities in accessibility persist even in well-planned cities. This study evaluates whether Stockholm's proximity-oriented planning framework translates into equitable access to healthy food across different transport modes. Using a multimodal, network-based approach, accessibility to healthy food outlets is measured for walking, cycling, public transport, and driving within 5-, 10-, and 15-min travel-time thresholds. Isochrones are derived from OpenStreetMap and GTFS data, and accessible outlets are classified by food type and weighted by residential population to capture differential exposure. The results reveal pronounced modal inequalities in food accessibility. Walking and public transport provide limited access within short travel times for large parts of the population, while cycling substantially expands the range of reachable opportunities, and driving offers near-universal access. Although central Stockholm exhibits high multimodal accessibility, many peripheral neighbourhoods remain dependent on faster or private modes to access healthy food. These patterns suggest that proximity-oriented planning does not necessarily ensure equitable accessibility when evaluated across transport modes. By integrating a multimodal accessibility framework with a food-environment classification, the study provides a consistent basis for assessing inequalities in access to healthy food. The findings highlight the importance of accounting for transport mode availability in planning for equitable urban food systems and provide empirical insights to support policies promoting local retail provision, cycling infrastructure, and balanced service distribution in Nordic cities.