Enhancing multicultural competence and policy implementation: a case study of grassroots communities in Indonesia confronting intolerance and marginalization

Indonesia’s cultural diversity presents both opportunities and challenges for social cohesion amid persistent identity-based tensions and structural inequalities. Although multicultural competence has been widely examined in educational research, existing studies largely focus on formal schooling or individual-level interventions, with limited attention to how grassroots communities cultivate intercultural learning through participatory social engagement. This study addresses this gap through a qualitative collective case study of five Indonesian community initiatives using interviews, observations, and document analysis. The findings reveal that multicultural competence develops unevenly and relationally across community contexts. Reflective dialogue, participatory arts, cultural revitalisation, interfaith engagement, and disability advocacy fostered multicultural awareness, critical understanding, and practical intercultural skills in distinct ways. Initiatives that integrated structural reflection and intersectional analysis developed more transformative forms of multicultural learning than those focused primarily on symbolic diversity and cultural appreciation. Cross-case analysis further demonstrates that multicultural competence does not develop linearly from awareness to knowledge and skills, but emerges dynamically through sustained interaction, local social realities, and organizational priorities. The study contributes theoretically by conceptualising multicultural competence as a socially negotiated and community-based capability rather than solely an individual attribute. Empirically, it expands multicultural education research beyond formal institutions by highlighting the transformative role of grassroots initiatives in fostering inclusion, participatory citizenship, and social cohesion within diverse societies.