Sexual differences of temporal marking and communication behaviours of common leopards (Panthera pardus) in Luolong County, Tibet

BACKGROUND: Carnivores frequently rely on scent and visual markings for intraspecific communication, delineating territorial boundaries, attracting mates and assessing competitors. However, studying such behaviours in rare and elusive species poses significant challenges. To enhance our understanding of the diel marking behaviours of common leopard (Panthera pardus), from November, 2019 to June, 2023, we conducted a comprehensive camera-trap survey in Luolong county of Tibet, China. METHODS: Our monitoring encompassed 159 locations yielded 1,208 (excluded 700 unknown sex) individual leopard detections over 60,000 trap days, allowing us to quantify the frequency and temporal patterns of marking behaviours. Of these, 153 detections involved territorial marking in snowy conditions, while 355 occurred in snow-free environments. RESULTS: Female leopards in mixed forests and shrublands exhibited higher diurnal activity in snow-presence days. Male leopards engaged in a range of behaviours - including sniffing and rolling - primarily within mixed, coniferous and shrubland habitats. Male leopards engaged more frequently in behaviours such as sniffing, scraping, urine spraying, body rubbing, vocalizations, rolling and scat deposition with notable differences in scraping frequency compared to females. Female leopards displayed similar behaviours but at reduced levels particularly in scraping activities. The number of scrapes observed at camera-trap sites appears to be an indicator of leopard visitation rates suggesting its usefulness for optimizing monitoring efforts. CONCLUSION: Our findings contribute valuable insights into how environmental factors influence social communication strategies in leopards, enhance our understanding of male and female leopard territorial and making behaviours in various environments, and benefit for the conservation and monitoring of carnivore populations.