Enhanced toxicity of diallyl disulfide and carvone nanoemulsions against a stored bean pest and their nontarget effects on its parasitoid and seed viability

estimated for the host beetle, diallyl disulfide NE and the 2:1 mixture were less toxic (<50% mortality) to the parasitoid Anisopteromalus calandrae adults. These treatments, particularly the 2:1 mixture, increased root length and seedling vigor index, with no measurable phytochemical residues on bean surfaces. Exposure of host larvae to diallyl disulfide NE increased total host mortality and parasitoid emergence. Overall, diallyl disulfide NE, alone or in a 2:1 mixture with carvone, showed strong potential as a plant-based fumigant against C. chinensis, with comparatively low adverse effects on the parasitoid longevity, positive diallyl disulfide NE effects on parasitism, and neutral or positive effects on seedling growth.