β-catenin-driven innate and metabolic reprograming in macrophages fuel T-cell-dependent inflammation in Toxoplasma gondii infection: implications for therapeutic intervention

Abstract Toxoplasma gondii activates innate immunity via TLR11/12 in mice, but the lack of functional human counterparts leaves a gap in understanding parasite sensing in humans. Here, we bridge this gap by uncovering a host-intrinsic sensing mechanism, wherein β-catenin signaling mediates immune recognition of T. gondii . Notably, this parasite hijacks the PI3K-AKT-β-catenin pathway in macrophages to promote its replication. While β-catenin ablation, either genetically or pharmacologically (XAV939), disavows this process, thereby inhibiting replication. Phospho-β-catenin-TCF4 drives IRF4 transcription, followed by phosphorylation of IRF4, which regulates CYBB transcription. Augmented CYBB enhances mitochondrial-ROS and triggers mitophagy via PINK1/PARKIN, whereas ablation of β-catenin preserves mitochondrial fitness, thereby impeding parasite growth. Enhanced ROS can oxidize host mitochondrial DNA, which then functions as a host-associated molecular pattern (HAMP). This activates the cytosolic pathogen recognition receptor (PRR) AIM2, triggering the AIM2-NLRP3-ASC-caspase-1-IL-1β inflammasome cascade. This cascade leads to gasdermin-D-mediated pyroptosis, a process that critically depends on the phosphorylation of β-catenin. T. gondii ’s ASP5 protease plays an essential role in the phosphorylation of β-catenin-mediated inflammasome activation. Metabolically, β-catenin-dependent enhanced ROS stabilized HIF-1α, which stimulates the HKII-LDH-A axis, promoting the Warburg effect, histone acetylation and pro-inflammatory M1-macrophage polarization (IL-12/IL-6/IL-23/TNF-α). β-catenin ablation shifts metabolism to oxidative-phosphorylation, fostering M2-phenotype (IL-2/IL-10/TGF-β) that abrogates parasites survival. β-catenin also strengthens MHC-TCR avidity, driving Th1/Tc1, Th9/Tc9, and Th17/Tc17 paradigm, whereas β-catenin inhibition promotes anti-inflammatory Th2/Tc2/Threg/Tcreg differentiation. Additionally, macrophage intrinsic β-catenin dictates metabolic divergence in both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺T-cells. Notably, β-catenin-deletion in macrophages protects mice (β-cat ΔMΦ ) against infection, highlighting that XAV939 has therapeutic potential against toxoplasmosis.