Vibration energy as a contributor to off-grid energy access and the sustainable energy transition

Energy systems must meet an increasing demand while simultaneously moving away from high‑carbon sources, with renewable energy sources (RES) offering a valuable alternative. While mainstream RES supply almost a third of the world's electricity, less attention has been paid to small-scale low-carbon energy sources and their role in providing off-grid energy access and sustainable energy transition. Vibration energy is one such source. However, a critical gap exists in the review literature regarding the real-world potential of vibrational energy harvester (VEH) technology. This paper addresses that gap by providing a comprehensive review of VEH research to assess its power generation potential, technological development, and societal implications such as potential contributions to sustainable development goals (SDGs) 7, 11, and 13. We find that there is a heavy focus on electromagnetic and piezoelectric harvesters. Average power generation in experiments is 0.24 mW, with 1 W generated in one tenth of experiments, and an increase in power generation of three orders of magnitude over the past 15 years. Sensors and wireless sensor networks (WSNs) provide the most promising use of VEH-generated power and potentially also low-level LED lighting. Through these applications, vibration energy might have the potential to contribute to SDGs 7 and 11 by providing monitoring or lighting in off-grid locations, although we note that this is highly context-dependent. We suggest that contributions to SDG 13 are limited primarily due to the low power generation potential of VEH devices. We conclude our review with recommendations for further studies.