Power and inclusion in REDD+ policy networks in the Democratic Republic of Congo

In forest governance research, how actors' power configurations shape national policy outcomes remain understudied, particularly regarding how distinct dimensions of power interact to influence these outcomes. We examine how two dimensions of power- reputational power (visibility of influence) as a proxy of overall multi-dimensional power, and collaborative power (relational embeddedness)- interact to shape policy outcomes. We introduce a two-dimensional typology of power that integrates four distinct configurations of power within policy network theory to explain how visibility and inclusion jointly shape policy arenas. Applying this typology to our case study of forest-based climate change mitigation in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), we find that: 1) visible-inclusive power dominates, yet donors' financial control risks converting inclusivity into dependency; 2) centralised agenda setting by executive government offices and international non-governmental organisations limits participation and deliberation in practice; 3) marginalisation of right-based civil society organisations and non-governmental organisations signals inequitable formal decision-making processes; and 4) business actors' structural power operates undetected and perpetuates deforestation entrenching inequitable socio-economic outcomes.