The Philippines’ and Vietnam’s divergent pathways to cyber commands

This paper investigates why the Philippines and Vietnam delayed the establishment of their cyber commands until 2024 and 2017, respectively, despite both countries experiencing foreign cyberattacks linked to the South China Sea disputes since the early 2010s and explains the seven-year disparity between them. Findings reveal that the Philippines initially focused on combating cybercrimes, whereas Vietnam prioritized addressing regime-threatening cyber activities. When the two countries eventually recognized cyberspace as a domain of warfare, different alignment choices, strategic cultures, and domestic institutions led to divergent pathways in creating their cyber commands.