Exploring Effects of AI vs. Deepfake AI vs. Human Instructors on Students’ Learning Outcomes in Online Hospitality and Tourism Higher Education

Artificial intelligence (AI) has significantly progressed in the hospitality and tourism industry. While various types of AI integration in higher education have been explored in other disciplines, the use of AI-generated teaching in the hospitality and tourism context has remained underexplored. This study explores the impact of instructor type – AI vs. deepfake AI vs. human – on students’ learning quality and performance, with emotional and cognitive engagement as mediators. By taking a single-factor experimental design approach, the results of this study highlight the critical role human instructors play in effective learning outcomes through building emotional connections. The findings also reveal the limitations of current AI and deepfake technology in higher education contexts. This study offers both theoretical and practical implications.