The ovarian cost of convenience—Human studies on phthalate exposure and ovarian function

Phthalates are ubiquitous environmental contaminants and suspected endocrine disruptors, used as plasticizers and constituents of fragrances. Regulation of their use in consumer products has largely been guided by male reproductive outcomes. However, as evidenced in rodent models, extended contact with phthalates also affects ovarian function. Data from human ovarian samples, ovary-derived cell lines, and epidemiological studies of infertile patient cohorts have demonstrated adverse associations between phthalate-related chemical burden and female fertility. Due to the sustained use of phthalate-containing products, women may experience earlier fertility decline. These outcomes can be linked to molecular disturbances in ovarian follicles, where phthalate metabolites are frequently detected. This review synthesizes current human evidence on phthalate impacts on the ovary.