Environmental estrogens and animal reproductive health: mechanisms, biomarkers, and intervention approaches

Environmental estrogens, a group of exogenous endocrine-active compounds, are frequently present in animal feed, water, and husbandry environments. These compounds, which include synthetic xenoestrogens, phytoestrogens, and metalloestrogens, can disrupt reproductive physiology and developmental processes in domestic animals. This review examines their effects on key reproductive outcomes such as folliculogenesis, spermatogenesis, gamete quality, and overall fertility. We discuss the underlying molecular mechanisms, focusing on hormone receptor signaling and epigenetic modifications, and highlight the particular relevance of low-dose and developmental stage-specific exposure in breeding populations. Additionally, potential mitigation approaches are outlined, including nutritional strategies, feed management, and genetic or biotechnological interventions aimed at preserving reproductive performance and animal health. This review elucidates the reproductive toxicological mechanisms of environmental estrogens and provides a scientific basis for developing effective prevention and mitigation strategies.