Strategic development of stable and efficient lead-free perovskite solar cells

Abstract Lead-free perovskite solar cells have seen rapid growth in recent years and pose a strong contender for future photovoltaic technology due to their non-toxic behavior. However, lead-free perovskite solar cells suffer from stability issues and low efficiency. In 2025, Tin-based perovskite solar cells achieved a maximum device efficiency of 17.13%. It has stimulated intense interest in developing lead-free alternatives that offer long-term stability and high PCE value. In this review, we discussed various strategies to develop stable and efficient lead-free perovskite solar cells. A brief discussion on the lead-free perovskite solar cells as alternatives and their fundamental issue has been presented. Importantly, recent developments in lead-free perovskite solar cells have been presented to emphasize the trends and techniques for highly efficient materials.