Beyond One-Size-Fits-All: Multilevel Individualism–Collectivism in a Theory of Planned Behavior Model of COVID-19 Behavior

Background COVID-19 caused millions of deaths worldwide, prompting social marketing campaigns to promote prevention behaviors and adherence to public health guidance. This crisis underscores the need to strengthen global social marketing to drive behavior change. Focus of the Article This study examines cross-cultural drivers of COVID-19 behavior change. Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), it assesses how attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control shape intention, and how individualism–collectivism (I–C) at country and individual levels affects these TPB antecedents. Research Questions (1) Within the TPB framework, which factors predict intention to adopt COVID-19 prevention behaviors? (2) Does national individualism–collectivism affect TPB antecedents (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control)? (3) Do personal I–C cultural orientations (horizontal individualism, vertical individualism, horizontal collectivism, vertical collectivism) affect these antecedents? Importance to the Social Marketing Field This study offers a theoretical model integrating TPB with individualism–collectivism at both country and individual levels. The findings clarify how I–C cultural values shape behavior change, advancing knowledge and offering actionable guidance for global social marketing. Methods Online surveys were administered in an individualist country (United States) and a collectivist country (Taiwan) during the pandemic to test the hypotheses. Results Integrating TPB with individualism–collectivism yielded a robust cross-cultural model of intention to adopt COVID-19 prevention behaviors. In Taiwan (collectivist), subjective norms were the strongest positive predictor of intention. In the United States (individualist), intention was driven mainly by attitude and perceived behavioral control. At the individual level, horizontal collectivism shaped these antecedents and thereby indirectly influenced behavioral outcomes. Together, the findings provide multilevel evidence to guide global social marketing strategies. Recommendations for Research or Practice Future research should investigate the generalizability of this study’s I–C culture model across diverse populations, global social issues, and countries. Social marketers should design more relevant and effective communications by tailoring messages to align with cultural values. Regardless of I–C cultures, social marketing campaigns should leverage and cultivate horizontal collectivism (HC) values to promote behavior changes for the benefit of society.