Replacing animal models in microsurgical training: A review and future perspectives on engineered synthetic blood vessels

OBJECTIVE: Microsurgical training requires high-fidelity vascular models to replace traditional training on living animals or cadavers, which face increasing ethical and logistical constraints. This review evaluates the current state of engineered synthetic blood vessel models designed to accurately mimic the mechanical and haptic properties of human vessels.
Methods. Following a systematic literature search, data were extracted and analyzed from 26 primary studies. The models were categorized into three primary technological groups: 3D-printed/post-processed structures, spinning technologies, and biomimetic/hybrid grafts. Key mechanical benchmarks, including burst pressure and suture retention force, were compared against human physiological references.
Results. The analysis indicates that while silicone and elastomers provide excellent durability and geometric precision, hydrogel-based and multi-layered hybrid models offer superior "needle-feel" and biomimetic compliance. Mechanical validation remains heterogeneous across the 26 studies. However, burst pressure and suture retention are emerging as critical benchmarks for assessing model fidelity.
Conclusion. Future developments should focus on standardized, multi-material models that integrate pulsatile flow systems. Such advancements are essential to bridge the gap between benchtop simulation and clinical reality, ultimately facilitating the replacement of animal models in microsurgical education.