Water Footprint of Waste-to-Hydrogen Production in the GCC: A Comparative Pathway Analysis and Governance Framework

Waste-to-hydrogen (W2H) technology is gaining recognition as a viable pathway for simultaneous waste valorisation and clean energy production in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). However, the water resource implications of hydrogen production pathways in this acutely water-scarce region have received insufficient analytical attention. This paper presents the first systematic comparative analysis of water consumption across grey, blue, green, and waste-to-hydrogen production pathways calibrated to the GCC context, using the ISO 14046 water footprint framework and accounting for the desalination penalty that arises when hydrogen facilities draw on energy-intensive desalinated water. The analysis shows that green hydrogen, widely promoted in GCC national hydrogen strategies, incurs a compound water–energy burden substantially greater than global benchmark figures suggest, with electrolysis requiring 9 to 18 litres of water per kilogram of hydrogen and desalination accounting for 4 to 20 per cent of GCC electricity consumption. In contrast, W2H gasification exhibits considerably more modest water demands at 10 litres per kilogram of hydrogen, with high potential for treated wastewater substitution and co-location with municipal waste infrastructure, positioning it as the most water-compatible near-term hydrogen production pathway for arid GCC economies. Drawing on the water–energy nexus and water governance literature, the paper proposes a Water–Hydrogen Governance Framework comprising four policy pillars: water efficiency standards for hydrogen production facilities, water allocation policy for industrial hydrogen projects, integrated water–energy planning at the national level, and regional GCC coordination on water–hydrogen governance. The framework is aligned with SDGs 6, 7, 13, and 17 and provides a structured and practical tool for GCC governments and development institutions seeking to integrate water security into hydrogen strategy. The findings contribute to the emerging literature on resource-constrained hydrogen deployment and offer a replicable governance model for other arid economies pursuing clean hydrogen transitions.