Integrating Intrinsic Mechanisms, Environmental Drivers and Anthropogenic Influences in Long-Lived Tree Longevity

Long-lived trees represent a remarkable biological phenomenon characterized by exceptional lifespan, ecological resilience, and cultural significance. However, current studies on plant longevity have primarily focused on intrinsic physiological and genetic mechanisms, while the integrated roles of environmental and anthropogenic factors remain insufficiently explored. This review synthesizes current knowledge on tree longevity from an integrative perspective. We revisit the relationship between senescence and longevity, emphasizing that plant aging is not merely functional decline but a regulated and adaptive process. We further summarize intrinsic mechanisms associated with longevity, including nutrient allocation, antioxidant defense, hormonal regulation, secondary metabolism, and molecular maintenance. In addition, we highlight the importance of environmental drivers and anthropogenic influences in shaping long-term survival and stability of long-lived trees. Finally, we propose a four-dimensional coupling framework integrating resource allocation, stress resistance, environmental pressure, and anthropogenic regulation. Within this framework, tree longevity is interpreted as an emergent property maintained through dynamic interactions, resilience, and feedback regulation. This review provides a conceptual basis for understanding plant longevity and offers theoretical support for the conservation of long-lived trees under global environmental change.